Simplified Soft Decision Decoding of LDPC codes

Simplified Soft Decision Decoding of LDPC codes MARUTHI L N K S GURUMURTHY Abstract LDPC codes gained importance since its re-discovery by Mackay and Neil based on Tanner Graph. This paper presents the implementation of forward error correction soft-input, soft-output decoding process that efficiently decodes the received set of data under low signal-to-noise ratios due to which the errors are reduced and hence transmission time is greatly reduced. The implemented algorithm is less complex and does not require knowledge of signal-to-noise-ratio of the received data-path. INTRODUCTION Error correction coding techniques came into existence after existence of channel capacity theorem by Shannon, the father of information theory in 1948 on reliable communication over noisy transmission channels. Thereafter, many coding techniques were developed for efficient coding techniques, like Hamming, Golay and many other techniques were developed. Though Gallagher in 1962 developed LDPC codes, the method employed was not optimal. Hence it was not reviewed for last 3 decades, until 1992, when a paper â€Å"Near Shannon limit error correcting coding and decoding: turbo codes† presented by Berrou, Glavieux and Thitimajshima changed the trend followed by researchers for the past 5 decades. And now, we are aiming to develop such codes through another strategy. The coding gain provided by this method is much higher when compared to other coding systems. The LDPC codes are becoming more popular because of their reduced power for transmission and less complex logic to achieve l ow BER’s which is very essential for reliable transmission over noisy channels. LDPC CODES Low Density Parity Check (LDPC) codes are a powerful class of forward error correction codes developed by Gallagher in 1962, practically implemented by MacKay in 1995. Low Density refers to less number of 1’s in the Parity Check Matrix (H) of Block Codes. Block codes are a type of Error Correction Codes which uses a Generator Matrix(G) to produces a Code-word of length n for message(D) of length k, where n-k is the redundancy bits added to make a Code-word of length n, higher the redundancy higher the error correction capability and higher the Bandwidth. Hence, there is a trade-off between error correction capability and bandwidth. C=D.G The size of the Matrix G is (n, n-k) and the size of the Matrix H is (n-k, n). Usually redundancy is defined by the term â€Å"code rate† which is given by R=k/n This varies from  ½ to 1/6. The Encoder produces a Code-word which satisfy the condition C.HT=0 If R is the received data from the Transmitter then the acknowledgement of the correct data received is given by the Syndrome(S). S=R.HT The value of S obtained by the above calculation determines whether the received data is free from error or not, i.e. if S=0 then the received data is free from error, otherwise the received data has an error. Since this property is very useful to reduce the calculation time if we receive the data correctly as soon as we receive data. The probability that the received data needs to be retransmitted which in the range of 10-6 to 10-8. Encoding the data as required is an easy process, but decoding the data effectively and efficiently is a very hard process. The proposed algorithm uses the basic concept of block codes, i.e. R=C+E Where R=noise corrupted vector C=Code vector transmitted over noisy channel E=Error vector. The receiver does not know C and E; its function is to decode C from R, and the message D from C. PROPOSED ALGORITHM The base for LDPC decoding algorithm proposed is as described by MacKay and Neil in 1997. Following are the steps that briefly describe the algorithm STEP 1: INITIALIZATION Let rj be the received vector, i.e. the data received from the Gaussian channel We calculate the components of the vectors d02( j), and d12( j) as: d02( j)= (rj+1)2 d12( j)= (rj-1)2 j = 1, 2, . . . , n (1) These first soft estimates of the code symbols are used to initialise the algorithm by setting the following coefficients q0ij and q1ij at each symbol node q0ij= d02( j) q1ij= d12( j) j = 1, 2, . . . , n, i = 1, 2. . . , . n-k, (2) To eliminate the effect of zero in the calculation the expressions for the calculations can be reduced as shown below ln(em+en) = max(m,n) + ln(1+ e-|m-n|) log2(2m+2n) = max(m,n) + ln(1+ 2-|m-n|)(3) The tables required for calculations are computed using the above formula. The complexity is greatly reduced and the reliability of the transmission of signal is increased. STEP 2: HORIZONTAL STEP aij= f+(q0ij , q1 ij ) bij= −f−(q0ij , q1ij) if (−q 0ij ) ≠¥ (−q1ij ) sij= 0 else sij= 1 cij= ikik if ik is even r0n,ij= −f+(0, cij ) r1n,ij= f−(0, cij ) if ik is odd r0n,ij= f−(0, cij ) r1n,ij= −f+(0, cij ) STEP 3: VERTICAL STEP q0ij= d02 (j) + 0n,ij q1ij= d12 (j) + 1n,ij STEP 4: DECISION rm0ij=r0n,ij+ q0ij rm1ij=r1n,ij+ q1ij if rm02(j)12(j) then c(j) = 1 else c(j) = 0 The LUT entries used in the proposed algorithm for equation (3) and the exact value obtained will vary as shown in the figure. Comparison of BER performance of (8 * 12) LDPC SSD decoder (10 iterations) Comparison of BER performance of (8 * 12) LDPC SSD decoder (50 iterations) As explained above, for higher precision the number of iterations is increased to obtain the same performance of the exact equation. The obtained results approach towards the complex algorithm developed by Gallagher with simple iterative approach and provides a high coding gain compared to uncoded signal. And it provides higher performance at larger iterations. This algorithm provides even higher performance for large length codes. CONCLUSION In this paper we have described Low Density Parity Check (LDPC) codes and decoding of these codes using low complexity algorithms. LDPC codes are used now-a-days in communication systems that take advantage of parallelism, good error correction and high through put. This led to the new algorithm which could decode the errors and yet give similar BER performance as the complex algorithms without the knowledge of the channel noise parameters like variance. This new algorithm is based on repeated use of an antilog-sum operation, and has been simulated on the Tanner graph representation of several LDPC codes and this algorithm can be regarded as a generalized form of belief propagation, where the belief propagated is Euclidean distance estimate rather than a probability estimate. The advantages of the new algorithm are that the performance is as good as the complex algorithm provided the value of base of the logarithm is used properly; that knowledge of noise is not required and that in the simplified form the algorithm needs only additions/subtractions, comparisons and two look-up tables avoiding the use of quotients and products operations that are of high complexity in practical implementations especially using FPGA technology. REFERENCES 1] R.G. Gallager, â€Å"Low Density Parity Check Codes†, IRE Trans. Information Theory, IT-8, 21-28 (1962). 2] D.J.C. Mackay and R.M. Neal, â€Å"Near Shannon limit performance of low density parity check codes,† Electronics Letters, vol. 33, pp 457-458 (1997). 3] L. Arnone, C. Gayaso, C. Gonzalez and J. Castineira, â€Å"Sum-Subtract Fixed Point LDPC Decoder,† Latin American Applied Research, vol. 37, pp 17-20 (2007). 4] Castineira Moreira, Farrell P.G.: â€Å"Essentials of error control coding†, Wiley (2006). 5] Castineira Moreira J., Farrell, P.G.: â€Å"Soft-decision SISO decoding of error-control codes†, Proc. 13th Int. Conf. on telecommunications (SENACITEL ’08), Valdivia, Chile, 12-15 November 2008. 6] L. Arnone, Castineira Moreira, Farrell P.G.: â€Å"FPGA implementation of a Euclidean distance metric SISO decoder,† Int. Symposium on communication theory and applications (ISCTA’09), Ambleside, UK, July 2009. 7] P.G. Farrell, L.Arnone, J. Castineira Moreira: â€Å"Euclidean distance soft-input soft-output decoding algorithm for low density parity check codes,† IET comm. Vol.5, Iss. 16, pp. 2364-2370, (2011). 8] J. Castineira Moreira, M. Rabini, C. Gonzalez, C. Gayaso, L. Arnone: â€Å"FPGA implementation of two very low complexity LDPC decoders,† IEEE papers, (2011). 9] Simon Haykin: â€Å"Digital communications†, John Wiley sons (2006). 10] Bernard Sklar, Pabitra K. Ray: â€Å"Digital communications: fundamentals and applications†, 2nd edn. Pearson education (2009). 11] Shu Lin, Daniel J. Costello Jr.: â€Å"Error Control coding†, 2nd edn. Pearson education (2004). 12] Moon T. K.: â€Å"Error correction coding- mathematical methods and algorithms†, Wiley (2005).

Declaration of Principles and State Policies Essay

To shed light on the meaning of the other provisions of the Constitution To guide all departments in the implementation of the Constitution Directed to lay down the primary rules characterizing our government system Principles The Philippines is not only a republican but also a democratic state. Every individual is a reservoir of sovereignty. While sovereign powers are delegated to the agencies of the government, sovereignty itself remains with the people, by whom and for whom all government exist and acts. Manifestations of a Democratic and Republican Sate: 1. The existence of the Bill of Rights 2. The observance of the principle that the Congress cannot pass irreparable laws 3. The observance of the principle that the State cannot be sued without its consent 4. The observance of the rule of majority 5. The observance of the principle that â€Å"ours is a government of law and not of men† 6. The observance of the principle of separartion of powers of checks and balances 7. The observance of the law of public officers known as administrative laws 8. The observance of election through popular will or the right of suffrage 9. Supremacy of civilian authority over the military 10. Separation of Church and State What kind of war is renounced by the Philippines? The kind of war that we renounced is an offensive war but not defensive Anchored on the principle of self-preservation and the right of the State to exist The Philippines adopts the generally accepted principle of international law International law – a body of rules and principles which governs the relations and diplomatic intercourse among nations What is the manifestation that civilian authority is supreme over the military? The making of the President, a civilian as such, as the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines Armed Forces – the protector of the people and the State, and the purpose of which is to secure the sovereignty of the state and the integrity of the national territory A simple democratic principle intended to avoid authoritarianism and dictatorship What is the prime duty of the Government as enunciated in Section 4 of Article II? Established to protect and to serve the welfare of the people The government has an inherent right to existence and self-preservation, and as such, he may call upon the people to defend the State What blessings of democracy do the Filipinos enjoy? 1. Maintenance of peace and order 2. Protection of life, liberty, and property 3. Promotion of general welfare What does the principle of separation of Church and State mean? The State is prohibited from interfering purely ecclesiastical affairs; on the other hand, the Church is banned from meddling in purely secular matters In conformity with the provision in the Bill of Rights that â€Å"no law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof† 1. The State shall have no official religion. 2. The State cannot set up a church (whether or not supported with public funds), aid one religion, aid all religion, or prefer one religion over  another. 3. Every person is free to profess belief or disbelief on any religion. 4. Every religious minister is free to practice his calling. 5. The State cannot punish a person for entertaining or professing religious belief or disbelief. 6. Religious sect cannot be registered as a poltical party [Art. IX-C, Sec. 5 (2)]. 7. No sectoral representatives from the religious sector [Art. VI, Sec. 5 (2)]. 8. Prohibitation against appropriation for sectarian benefit [Art. VI, Sec. 29 (2)]. State Policies Foreign policy – the basic rules underlying the conduct by a state of its affairs with any other State The government should not allow to be dictated by any foreign power in the making of our foreign policy Considerations: National sovereignty Territorial sovereignty National interest Right to self-determination What is the policy of the State pertaining to nuclear weapons? Republic Act 69696 establishes the Philippines as a Nuclear-Free Zone (Art. II, Sec. 8) Nuclear power or nuclear medicine is not covered with the provisions What are the underlying premises of Section 9? The enactment of measure that shall provide adequate social services in the field of housing, education, health, and employment is actually a ministrant [optional] function of the government which, under the 1987 Constitution, is now considered as a mandatory function The society â€Å"must ensure that the prosperity and independence of the nation will free the people from poverty† How can social justice be carried out in all phases of national development? Social justice – giving what is due to an individual such as food, clothing,  shelter, and even a little dignity; the promotion of the welfare of all the people; the adoption by the government of measures calculated to ensure economic stability of all component elements of society; the humanization of laws and the equalization of social and economic forces so that justice in its rational and objectively secular conception may at least be approximated (Art. II, Sect. 10) Up to what extent does the State value the human dignity? The State values the dignity of every human person and guarantees full respect for human rights (Art. II, Sec. 11) What is the meaning of family and why is the protection of the State begins from the time of conception? The State recognizes the sanctity of family life and shall protect and strengthen the family as a basic autonomous social institution The policy of the State against abortion by equally protecting the life of the mother and the unborn The State also supports the natural and primary duty of the parents in the rearing of the young for civic efficiency and the development of moral character What is the constitutional duty of the State in promoting the well-being of the youth and women?

Rhetorical Analysis Paper

Tramy Quach Professor Knapp English 100A, Section 6 Final Draft 03/06/13 RHETORICAL ANALYSIS PAPER Introduction Rhetorical strategy is a type of method for writers to manipulate their writing to purpose an idea or influence the reader. Narration, description, and exemplification are some of the rhetorical appeals writer use to grab the reader’s attention. And invoke strong reaction out of the reader. Apart from these strategies, many writers use Aristotle's appeals of Logos, Ethos, and Pathos to persuade the reader. Logos is an appeal to the audience's logic and reason.Pathos is an appeal to the audience’s sentiments and emotions. Ethos is an appeal to the authority or reputation of the speaker. Logos is an appeal to the audience's logic and reason. In my rhetorical analysis, I will be analyzing an article by Heather Mattern called, â€Å"Learning to Breathe†. In this article, Mattern proposes increasing physical activity such as running, , consuming raw foods, a nd adopting a positive mentality to curb depression. Mattern’s article brings awareness to health educators, like myself, who focuses on the study of health related issues like food, nutrition, and prevention.Through the use of use pathos and logos appeals, as well as narration, classifying and diving, and exemplifications to do what? Pathos Through her article, Mattern appeals to our emotions by using vivid descriptions of depression in order to get her reader to sympathize and gain awareness of how serious depression can affect our mood. In the article, Mattern uses pathos as an appeal to the reader when she explains, â€Å"I learned†¦ about one in every eight women could expect to develop clinical depression during their lifetime. Many of these women I know.They are my friends, mothers popping anti-depressant pills and smiling numbly with an artificial happiness. They know no other way† (Mattern). Here, Mattern is successful in getting her readers to briefly ac quire a visual sense of how depression can eat at one’s personal happiness. . This is especially a powerful tool to influence readers if the reader knows anyone close or a loved one who has dealt with depression. Additionally, through describing the smile as â€Å"artificial†, it stirs up a serious emotions of being empty, without purpose.Furthermore, in her article she writes, â€Å"†¦ my mind held me a prisoner† (Mattern) to enable her readers to gain the mindset of being trapped, which appeals to our fears of being helpless and vulnerable. She later describes her mind as a â€Å"hostage† and referrers to her depression as a â€Å"demon. † Her word choice of â€Å"demon† and â€Å"hostage† to describes her illness are words that readers are fearful of. In doing such, Mattern wants her readers to now associate these feelings of being helpless and afraid with depression.Mattern used pathos appeals in her article to attempts to pe rsuade her reader by stirring the emotions emptiness, fear and vulnerability in hopes that her reader will see and feel what depression really is, a serious disease Logos Another strategy the author use is Logos; it refers to any attempt to appeal to the intellect, the general meaning of â€Å"logical argument. † Everyday arguments rely heavily on ethos and pathos, but academic arguments rely more on logos. These arguments engage readers or observers by appealing to reason, logic, and data.An example that was used in the article â€Å"†¦you would never know that she had struggled with years of depression. She cured her depression without medication† (Mattern). The author is referring to her friend Beth, who inspired Mattern to conduct her own personal prescription for her depression. Beth is an influential example of curing her own depression. She explains to Mattern that her secret is running and veggies. Beth makes the time early in the morning before her family wakes up, and gets moving. Beth finds the time in the day to give back to her body and mind.Beth is an excellent example of curing depression the right way without any artificial chemicals or drugs. Another an illustration Mattern use in her article, â€Å"†¦ I listed three challenges, all-starting with Rs, the three Rs that were going to help me: running regularly, raw foods, and right thinking with gratitude. Each of these has been proven to reduce stress and increasing endorphins. Endorphins are a happy chemical – neurotransmitters that are produced in the brain to reduce both stress and pain. They work in much the same way as an anti-depressant does† (Mattern).Here the author uses facts to prove her conduction with the three Rs to reduce stress and pain. Logos strategies has played a magnificent role in the article because it explained the messages and created a better understanding for the reader. Logos strategies was used successfully because the author sen d a message to the reader that depression could be cure with easy simple steps instead of prescription medication. As well as, using facts and examples to illustration her ideas. Narrations Narrations are another type of strategy that is used in many articles.They are used to capture an image for the reader to relate and make them feel comfortable about what they are reading. In different articles they use narration to give examples on what they are trying to present. They use past experiences or third person stories to create a bond with the reader. In the article, Mattern uses narration by having a story about her difficulty waking up in the morning. Mattern mentions, â€Å"It was hard at first, alarm clock going off at six o’clock and feet touching an icy cold floor. Bones chilled, spine stiff with goose bumps. The battle was on each day, blankets tempting me to remain warm in their embrace.I pressed on. Running got me out of bed and I forced a smile onto my face† ( Mattern). Mattern used marvelous detail in her narration that it was simple to understand and got the message across. This narration delivers a message to the readers so they could relate with this difficulty. The battle that everyone face of waking up early in the morning to do something productive instead of sleeping in a warm cozy bed. The reason why narration was affective in this article because Mattern was able to create a visual story allowing the reader to have some sense of struggle that the audience could all relate to.Classifying and Dividing Classification and Division is defined, â€Å" an important rhetorical strategy when the writer wants to analyze and then group similar items or divide one item up into parts† (course reader). This approach allows Mattern to organize her ideas and break into certain parts giving the reader no stress in reading her article and makes it easier for the author to address the main points of each subject in great details. Matternâ⠂¬â„¢s article is divided into four parts: depression, running, raw foods, right thinking, and write your own personal prescription.The reader can find certain areas they are interested in or refrain certain areas that they are not interested in. She is able to illustrates a story off each part and give insightful information. Mattern is able to make this so effective that the words are not hard to understand and everything flows with each passage. As we can see Division and classification is used smoothly in the passage so that the reader can understand. As a result, the method of organizing the article has made it easier for the author to inform the reader about creating a healthy lifestyle.Exemplifications Last but not least, exemplification was used in the article. This strategy gives examples for enhancing the idea. In an exemplification writing it starts with the main idea, opinion, or belief and then gives a few examples to illustrate the main idea. For example, â€Å"I kept noticing the same two themes: eating a healthy diet consisting of lots of raw foods and an adequate amount of exercise. Since my friend had been so successful with her running, I decided that I would give that a try first† (Mattern).The author did research about depression and noticed that eating healthy as well as getting the right amount of exercise was important factors for a health lifestyle. Mattern also uses her friend Beth as an example of turning her life around. Beth also suffered from depression but cured it with running and veggies. Now she is a living influential example to Mattern and many others who suffers from the same problem. Conclusions Overall, understanding rhetorical situation can help contribute to strong, audience focused, and well organized writing.Mattern uses pathos and logos appeals, as well as narration, classifying and diving, and exemplifications as her rhetorical strategies. Mattern did a great job using these strategies extensively in her arti cle. The writing was very detailed; she gave emotional and positive effects to the reader and even made the article inspiring and motivating to read. This article you can see how rhetorical is such a great strategy. We apply these strategies each day of our lives in our essays or journals. There are many different type of writings that are presented in books, newspapers or articles.Rhetorical Strategies are just one of the technique that help captures the readers. By doing this rhetorical analysis paper, I feel extremely certain in understanding these rhetorical strategies. This paper has help me become more aware about writing techniques. It also allowed me to conclude the roles of each rhetorical strategy that they all play an important role in producing clear communications through writing. Since, I have great experience with the rhetorical strategies; I am now ready to take on the challenges that may approach me!

The Benefits and Effects of Exercise on Post-Treatment Breast Cancer Patients - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2212 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/02/06 Category Medicine Essay Level High school Tags: Breast Cancer Essay Did you like this example? INTRODUCTION Exercise can be very beneficial for reducing pain and swelling, improving range of motion and strength, and improving a person’s overall quality of life. There are many variations of exercise that can be done as well because different people require different intensities and types of exercise regarding their diagnosis and their treatment care plan. Post-treatment breast cancer patients experience a great amount of pain during and after their treatments. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Benefits and Effects of Exercise on Post-Treatment Breast Cancer Patients" essay for you Create order This pain can be caused by the surgeries like a lumpectomy, a mastectomy, or a double mastectomy. The pain may also be due to the type of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or medicinal treatment they are receiving during or after the surgery is performed. One of the most common problems that women face post-surgery and treatment is lymphedema of the arm, axillary (armpit) area, and the shoulder according to Sagen et al. (15). This is common due to the removal of lymph nodes surrounding the tumor that is being excised (15). This brings up the category of strengthening the arm and shoulder areas. Since this is one of the most affected areas for breast cancer patients, its strength will need to be built up again after being weakened after surgery or treatment. These surgeries and treatments will cause a large amount of scar tissue that is built up which is discussed by Otoole J, Russell T, Taghian A. (14). This makes recovery even more challenging when trying to reach or move the arms or the axillary area. The scar tissue problem can be dealt with by performing stretching exercises, whether it be in a pool or on land, as well as a therapist massaging the scar tissue out to loosen up the fibers (14). When this area is strengthened and stretched it helps break up some of the scar tissue formed in these areas. At first this may be done in a physical therapy setting where a therapist can perform active stretching to encourage the breast cancer patient to push their limits (4, 14, 15). This allows for an increased range of motion (ROM) (4,14,15). When the breast cancer patient starts to feel more independent, they may want to try and continue to stretch and strengthen with yoga. This stretching class helps the patients to alleviate pain and improve their quality of life (QOL) by doing something that may be considered more enjoyable than therapy (3). When patients are recovering from the tre atments they have received, along with therapy, it is hard for them to stay motivated to be active. They are left feeling fatigued and sore. They are also instructed to wait for a certain allotment of time, typically eight weeks, before performing any physical activity (7,9). This takes a toll on the patient’s strength, and it is hard for them to build it back up. A way for patients to stay motivated, and reduce their pain, and improve their stretching and strength is through aquatic therapy. The aquatic environment is a soothing environment that promotes muscle relaxation while alleviating pain and improving the patients stretching and strength. The relaxation of the body is promoted by the water temperature which is typically around 28.3 °Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 30  ° C or 83 ° 86 ° F, as stated by Aquatic Exercise Association (AEA) guidelines (1). When the muscles are relaxed it allows for the body to be more mobile and looser. It helps to promote circulation and cardiac output throughout the body which leads to more blood in the upper part of the body. This is because in the water gravity is not acting against the patient (1). The aquatic environment promotes balance and stability as well since the water doesn’t allow for consequences for stumbling states Aqua hub Physical therapy (19). If patients are feeling ambitious or are looking for the next challenge while recovering, recent studies have shown promise for the future of aerobic exercise after breast cancer treatment. Aerobic exercise is not a typical treatment because it is more vigorous than aquatics, and arm and shoulder strengthening. It is also not typical because patients are feeling so fatigued after their treatments, and there is also a certain time span that they must wait before participating. This exercise helps improve patient’s aerobic capacity along with their quality of living. Their aerobic capacity is improved when they perform moderate to vigorous activities, which gets their blood moving. After a few weeks their bodies will start to adjust and adapt, and the harder workouts will become normal. Aerobic exercise can be done in a group setting which can give the patient a sense of motivation to know that a friend is experiencing the same struggles they are. When researching the effects of exercise on post- treatment breast cancer patients, research has shown that different types of exercise have led to reduced pain, improved range of motion, and improvement in a breast cancer patients’ overall quality of life. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM Breast cancer is a continuously growing problem in the United States. One in every eight women in the US will develop some type of invasive breast cancer sometime within their lifetime according to the U.S. Breast Cancer Statistics (17). Not only that, but it also states that the rate of death caused around 40,000+ women to die in 2018 alone (17). It is also the second most cause of death among women today (8). This disease is very prominent in women now more than ever. There are two types of mutations in the DNA, the first is genetically inherited which is where the parent passes their gene to the child and the second one is changes that happen as a person ages or has some sort of chemical exposure. In 5%-10 % of breast cancers are the genetically inherited type (19). There are two types of the genetically inherited mutations. The first being the BRCA1 (Breast Cancer gene one) and the BRCA2 (Breast Cancer gene two). These are genes that everyone has, and they have the function of re pairing damages and keeping systems growing like the breasts and ovaries. However, when this genetic mutation is passed down on the BRCA genes, then it is more likely for that child to develop breast cancer later in life (19). along with this there can be mutations in pieces of the chromosome called SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) and researchers are finding that this is linked to an even higher chance of developing breast cancer in women that received the previous gene mutation and in women who did not (19). REVIEW OF LITERATURE Aquatics Aquatic exercise is very beneficial to post-treatment breast cancer patients. Some of the benefits include relaxation which is brought on by the comfort of being in the pool and the heat that the pool provides. The heat and relaxation help to alleviate some of the pain that patients experience. The main focuses of the three studies are deep water running (DWR) class, improving cancer-related fatigue, improving pain, improving overall health and quality of life. Cuesta-Vargas A, Buchan J, Arroyo-Morales M. (3) and Gonzalez-Angulo AM. (8) focused their studies on DWR and Cantarero-Villanueva I, Fernà ¡ndez-Lao C, Caro-Morà ¡n E, et al. (2), along with the previously mentioned studies, focused on aerobic workouts in the pool (2,3,8). Most of the scenarios were similar in that the pool was heated for comfort. There was an appropriate subject size in the trials that ranged from about 40-68 people within each article. The experiments’ timelines were eight weeks long or tw o months long. They all consisted of an experimental group and a control group. The experimental groups were typically assigned to some program that was about an hour long and consisted of a warm-up, a few interchangeable aerobic exercises, recovery techniques, and a cool down. The subjects usually met about three days a week. The control groups in each trial were either given a normal treatment at physical therapy or some type of pamphlet to read and work on. All treatments showed great signs of improvement in breast cancer survivors, including decreased fatigue and pain and increased strength. Some of the secondary focus that the breast cancer survivors wanted to come into play were the circumference of the waist, body mass index (BMI), and weight loss (2). It was found in Cantarero-Villanueva I, Fernà ¡ndez-Lao C, Caro-Morà ¡n E, et al. (2) study that patients had improved their waist circumference (2). The research found that aquatic exercise is very beneficial to women who h ave experienced different pain weakness because of breast cancer treatment. This has proven to be a great alternative for post-treatment breast cancer patients to explore. (2,3,8) Strengthening Arm and Shoulder Area There is a heightened importance for breast cancer patients to strengthen their arm and shoulder area after surgery because that is the area most affected by the surgeries they endure. Yoga is an effective and safe way for breast cancer patients to better their QOL and alleviate pain according to Eyigor S. et. Al (4). Mazor M, Lee JQ, Peled A, et al. (12) conducted study (4) that tested strength, arm volume and ROM. It was concluded that yoga will improve ROM and increase strength in the upper extremity of breast cancer patients. (4,12). Harder H, Holroyd P, Burkinshaw L, et al. (9) conducted a new app-based exercise program. It allowed for breast cancer patients to help come up with ideas when making the app and while the app was being used. The focus of the app was to allow post-treatment breast cancer patients to exercise their arm and shoulder areas at more convenient times for them. This study showed promising effects but still needs to be studied further (9). Progressive streng thening and training after breast cancer surgery is hoped to improve ROM, strength, swelling, pain, and QOL according to Kilbreath SL (11). However, in this study, testing this, there needed to be further research conducted to prove all the outcomes. Early physiotherapy to prevent lymphedema after breast cancer surgery is a study that Otoole J, Russell T, Taghian A. (16) conducted. The patients in their study received manual lymphatic drainage, massaging scar tissue, and active stretching that was increased over time. The results showed that these methods could assist in the prevention of lymphedema (16). In another context, Sagen A et al. (17) discusses upper limb function after lymph node dissection. This is similar to (16) in the way that it involves lymphedema. Sagen A et al focused-on arm lymphedema, shoulder mobility, and pain intensity (15). It was determined that further research may need to be done, but overall breast cancer patients may benefit from participating in early physiotherapy, along with strength and resistance exercise (17). These studies focused on performing exercises that would help to improve quality of life, strength, and range of motion, and decrease swelling/lymphedema in the upper extremities. The studies were a bit new and even though there was evidence of some improvement in what is listed above, it is stated that further research will need to be done with a larger test size for a longer time frame. The studies lasted from 8 weeks – 2.5 years after treatment. There was certainly no lack of participants when these studies were combined! The subject size in these studies ranged from 42-391, although the (9) did not mention subject size. Each researcher integrated their own form of exercise program. Most were broken into experimental and control groups, except for the app-based exercise program. The app-protocol was designed with the ideas of real breast cancer survivors and then was tested by them eight weeks after their surgery. For the other studies there was a wide variety of training done, like yoga (4,12), resistance training and stretching (11), lymphatic drainage and massages of scar tissue (16), active and progressive active and assisted shoulder exercises (17). Aerobic Exercise Moderate aerobic exercise is said to improve a patients QOL and physical functioning according to Murtezani A et. al (13). The vigorous aerobic exercise study focused on improving physical performance in breast cancer patients and its potential to affect bone mass according to Nikander R et al (15). Ng AV, Cybulski AN, Engel AA, et al. (14) study the effects of triathlon training on breast cancer patients. Their focus is on improving QOL of breast cancer patients. The result was an improvement o f QOL and an increase in the breast cancer patient’s aerobic capacity (14). The goals for these studies were to improve the patients’ quality of life and improve aerobic performance. The secondary improvements were focused on changes in the patient’s body composition, improving their weight, and improving BMI. The number of days per week that the subjects were in the group and at home varied from study to study. Some of the studies tested the maximal O2 uptake (VO2 Max test) to help determine where the participants were at physically (14). Along with the maximal test there were a few submaximal tests used like the 12-minute walk test, which is another way of estimating the maximal oxygen uptake (13). This also gives the subjects an idea on how they have improved aerobically after the trial is over if they choose to participate in the test again. The studies were found to be very beneficial for post-treatment breast cancer patients. They showed that there was an improvement in the patient’s quality of life, physical functioning, and aerob ic capacity. Even though all the studies had positive outcomes, some of them suggested that there be further research to investigate into this topic more. It seems to be a newer topic however; these studies seem to show promising outcomes so far. (13,14,15)